Characterization of Some Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water Bodies Inhabited by Small Indigenous Fish Species (SIFs): A Case Study
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The physico-chemical properties of water bodies play crucial role in determining the life history as well as assemblage of inhabitant fish. The aim of this study was to analyse some water and sediment content parameters of inhabitant water bodies and investigate if there persists any correlation between physico-chemical parameters and fish assemblage. Freshwater ponds around Birbhum district, West Bengal (India) were selected for collection of water, sediment, and fish species samples. Temperature (°C), dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, nitrogen and phosphorous contents of water and sediment were analysed. Fish ecomorphological indices were calculated. The range of variations of the physico-chemical parameters in pond water were measured. For identifying the factors determining species assemblage, interaction effects of the factors throughout the seasons were first analysed. The analysis results of N and P contents from water and sediment showed no significant seasonal difference and correlation with assemblage. Next, fish species wise correlation of ecomorphological indices to temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solid (TDS) and pH was analysed. Correlation analysis showed that temperature and pH had a moderate to strong correlation with most of the ecomorphological indices that determines the behaviour of SIFs as depicted by the indices. These two parameters could be considered as major direct parameters to understand the distribution of SIFs in water bodies.
Introduction
The physico-chemical parameters of aquatic bodies primarily regulate the biology and physiology of inhabitant fish species. The diversity of fin fishes are directly affected by mortality, growth patterns, and other several important factors (Kiskuet al., 2017). The water quality parameters can be roughly divided into three categories, namely (1) physical (e.g., temperature and pH), (2) chemical (e.g., dissolved oxygen, total hardness, and nutrients), and (3) biological (e.g., microbes). Earlier studies on fish showed species-specific tolerance ranges of these factors, like thermal tolerance (Anttilaet al., 2013; Chrétien & Chapman, 2016), dissolved oxygen tolerance (Elshoutet al., 2013; Franklin, 2014), pH tolerance (Gonzalez & Dunson, 1989; Oliveiraet al., 2008), nitrogen tolerance (Bowser et al., 1983; Williams & Eddy, 1986; Kroupovaet al., 2005), and phosphorous tolerance (Nordvarg, 2001).
The temperature of the water and its changing patterns have significant impacts on biological communities’ composition as it determines the metabolic demand of individual organisms (Brownet al., 2004). The change in water temperature can be linked with thermal discharges, land-use changes, agricultural and irrigation return-flows, flow modifications, inter-basin water transfer, modification to riparian vegetation, and global warming (Roy, 2014). Warming increases metabolic rates more rapidly than ingestion rates leading to energetic inefficiency and predator starvation, affecting the higher trophic levels disproportionately. Thus, the indirect effects of warming through the food web sometimes can be greater than direct physiological effects.
These impacts are stronger in freshwaters, with relatively discrete ecosystem boundaries which constrain the species potential to range shifts for tracking thermal optima. As ectotherms, fish cannot regulate their body temperature, dependent on the external environment, so warming may directly alter physiological functions like thermal tolerance, growth, metabolism, food ingestion, and reproduction. If increases in metabolic demand are not meet by increasing food availability or strategies to maximize energy intake, populations are likely to decline or go extinct (O’Gorman et al., 2016). Temperature alteration has a profound impact on the dissolved oxygen contents in water. The dissolved oxygen (DO) contents of water decrease with increasing temperature. Fish growth, feed utilization, and the body’s innate immunity are adversely affected by low DO (Abdel-Tawwabet al., 2015).
Elevated freshwater pH occurs primarily due to acidified rain or snow depositions having long-lasting effects on freshwater pH. Aquatic ecosystems may also be affected by climate change-related acidification due to the increased uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Humic acid (from the degrading organic matter) can be another cause of freshwater acidification (Steinberg, 2003). Acidification causes fundamental changes to biological and ecological processes in the aquatic ecosystem. One of the main consequences is the disruption of the chemosensory abilities of aquatic organisms. Detection of chemical cues supports a wide range of decision-making processes to exhibit their social behaviour. A low pH has been shown to interfere with predator avoidance and the detection of foraging cues (Kleinhappelet al., 2019).
Nutrients in water are mainly composed of nitrogen and phosphorus. They are essential for living matters. Nitrogen is present in fresh water in five different chemical forms, NO3− or nitrate ion, NO2− or nitrite ion, NH4+ or ammonium ion, NH3 or ammonia and ON or organic nitrogen apart from its molecular form N2. The quantities of these dissolved inorganic and organic nitrogen compounds are highly diverse and vary with different environmental conditions (Roy, 2014). The nitrification of ammonia and the denitrification of nitrate leads to the natural accumulation of nitrite in freshwater. The concentration of nitrite in natural, unpolluted water is minute in the μm range. Factors affecting the nitrification process are pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, number of nitrifying bacteria, the inhibiting compounds (such as nitrous acid, methylene blue, NH3, antibiotics), and some organic compounds (aniline, dodecyl amine, p-nitrobenzaldehyde) (Russo & Thurston, 1991; Kroupovaet al., 2005). As the aquatic animals actively take nitrite from water across the gill epithelium and accumulate in their body fluids, they are at higher risk of nitrite intoxication than terrestrial animals. Although the harmful effects of nitrite to humankind and higher vertebrates have long been recognized, it is the recent years when its toxicity to fish has started to attract attention (Williams & Eddy, 1986).
Phosphorus occurs in natural and wastewaters almost solely as phosphates, are classified as orthophosphates, organically bound phosphates, and condensed phosphates (pyro, meta-, and other polyphosphates). Their distribution is pH-dependent. Orthosphosphate, inorganic polyphosphates, and organic phosphorus compounds dissolve in the water phase. The forms of phosphate arise from a variety of sources. Orthophosphate or other condensed phosphates are added during water treatment, and during the treatment of boiler waters. These are added in larger quantities. Other sources of the orthophosphates and organic phosphates in surface waters are from their application in agricultural or residential cultivated land as fertilizers, runoff from body wastes or food residues, or from biological treatment processes (Holtanet al., 1988; APHA, 2017). As phosphorus is the nutrient-limited supply in most freshwaters, a modest increase in phosphorus can trigger a whole chain of undesirable events in a stream, including algae blooms, increased plant growth, low dissolved oxygen, and the death of fish. Monitoring phosphorus levels in water is challenging because it involves measuring very low concentrations, e.g., 0.01 milligram per litre or even lower. Even such very low concentrations can drastically impact streams (Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, accessed on 16/12/2020).
Although the physico-chemical properties of water play such a crucial role in determining the life history as well as the distribution range of fish, there is a lack of studies regarding the suitable range of water quality parameters in which small freshwater fishes can persist, as well as the role of the physico-chemical parameters affecting their assemblages. The aim of this study was to analyse some water and sediment content parameters of inhabitant water bodies and investigate if there persists any correlation between physico-chemical parameters and fish assemblage.
Materials and Methods
Study Area
Freshwater ponds around Birbhum (lies between 23°32′30″ and 24°35′0″ N and 87°5′25″ and 88°1′40″ E, and about 4,545 square kilometres in area) district, West Bengal (India) were selected for collection of water, sediment and fish species samples. The selected ponds were natural and perennial, with an average depth of about 5 meters and area of about 400 square feet. Water samples were collected from a depth of about 1 meter during fish sampling. Sampling was done from November 2018 to December 2019. From each site, 4 replicates of water samples were collected and mixed before analysis (Fig. 1). The phosphorus molecules tend to adsorb to the inside surface of sample containers. So, containers made of either some form of plastic or Pyrex glass were used as per EPA for sampling. They are also more preferable to glass as they can better withstand the breakage.
Fig. 1. Selected lentic ecosystem sampling sites. Ponds were not connected to each other or any canal, but water overflows during monsoon time. The pond water was not used for drinking purposes; ponds are used only for fishing. There were agricultural fields around the selected ponds.
Analysis Procedure of Water Quality Parameters
Temperature (°C) and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured by DO meter (Lutron make). pH was measured using a portable pH meter (Hanna make). Before using the pH meter, it was standardized at pH buffer 4 and 7.
Following the method described in APHA (APHA, 2017), nitrite-nitrogen of water sample was estimated using α-Napthalamine and Sulphanilic Acid Method. The Brucine Method was followed for determining nitrate-nitrogen of the water sample. Ammonium-nitrogen of water sample was determined by Phenol-Hypochlorite Method (APHA, 2017). Stannous Chloride Method was used for determining the phosphate in water. To determine the nitrogen and phosphorous in sediment methods in Rivaset al. (2000) were followed.
Formation of Ecomorphological Indices
The ecomorphological indices were calculated by using morphological measuments. The indices were—Relative length of head (RLH), Relative height of head (RHH), Relative area of eye (RAE), Mouth aspect ratio (MAR), Compression index (CI), Relative eyes position (REP), and Relative height (RH). The details of ecomorphological indices and morphological measuments are described in Royet al. (2020).
Identifying the Factors Determining Species Assemblage
Interaction effects of physico-chemical parameters throughout the seasons were first estimated. Then highly correlated variables were eliminated, and after that, fish species wise correlation between ecomorphological indices to the factors was determined.
Results
Analysis of Water Quality Parameters
The variations of concentrations of the physico-chemical parameters in pond water were grouped according to summer (March–June), monsoon (July–October) and winter (November–February) season, and then were averaged together seasonally. The temperature of the pond water varied between 20.2 °C to 29.5 °C throughout the seasons. The pH of water varied between 5.5–7. The dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration ranged between 3.6 to 9.65 mg/l and total dissolved solid (TDS) between 20 to 130 mg/l. The NO2-N in pond water varied throughout the seasons from 0.005 to 0.263 mg/l and in sediment from 0.0001 to 0.00525 mg/gm. NO3-N varied between 0.1 to 0.271 mg/l in water and between 0.0024 to 0.05 mg/gm in sediment. NH3-N varied between 0.072 to 0.221 mg/l in water and between 0.01 to 0.084 mg/gm in sediment. The TP concentration in water ranged between 0.12 to 0.35 mg/l and in sediment 0.112 to 0.466 mg/gm (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Mean, maximum and minimum ranges for physico-chemical parameters of studied sites. (A), (B) and (C) Water paremeters, (D) Soil parameter. Abbreviations, DO is dissolved oxygen, TDS is total dissolved solids, NO2-N is nitrite-nitrogen, NO3-N is nitrate-nitrogen, NH3-N is ammonium-nitrogen, and TP is total phosphorous (unit mg/l for water and mg/gm for sediment contents).
Identifying the Factors Determining Species Assemblage
For identifying the factors determining species assemblage, interaction effects of the factors throughout the seasons were first analysed. The analysis results of N and P contents from water and sediment showed no significant seasonal difference, the concentrations were more or less similar throughout the seasons (Figs. 3 and 4). It was assumed that homogeneity in values might not affect the trophic assemblage in these fishes. Only a significant difference was seen in the case of NO3-N concentrations in sediment in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. But this result was ignored, as the other results of N and P concentration variations were insignificant. In the case of DO, temperature, pH and TDS, significant seasonal differences were seen between the seasons (Fig. 5). It was assumed that such variation might affect the clustering or availability of these fishes. So, these four factors were chosen next for further study.
Fig. 3. One-way analysis of means (ANOM) of (A) TP, (B) NO2-N, (C) NO3-N, (D) NH3-N to see the interaction effect of water throughout seasons (1. March–June, 2. July–Oct, 3. Nov–Feb).
Fig. 4. One-way analysis of means (ANOM) of (A) TP, (B) NO2-N, (C) NO3-N, (D) NH3-N of sediment throughout seasons (1. March–June, 2. July–Oct, 3. Nov–Feb).
Fig. 5. One-way analysis of means (ANOM) of (A) DO, (B) Temp, (C) pH, (D) TDS throughout seasons (1. March–June, 2. July–Oct, 3. Nov–Feb).
Now, fish species wise correlations of ecomorphological indices to temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solid (TDS) and pH were done. Correlation analysis showed that except A. mola, temperature and pH had a moderate to strong correlation with most of the ecomorphological indices of studied fish sepecies that determines the behaviour of SIFs as depicted by the indices (Table I). These two parameters could be considered as major direct parameters to understand the distribution of SIFs in water bodies.
Name of fish | RLH | RHH | RAE | MAR | CI | REP | RH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A. mola | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
P. sophore | T | pH | – | – | – | – | T |
E. danrica | T, pH | T, pH | – | T | T, pH | T, pH | T, pH |
L. guntea | T | – | – | – | – | – | – |
C. nama | T, pH | pH | – | – | – | – | – |
P. lala | T, pH | pH | T, pH | pH | T, pH | pH | – |
T. fasciata | pH | T | pH | T, pH | pH | pH | T |
A. testudineus | – | T, pH | – | T, pH | – | T, pH | T, pH |
G. giuris | T, pH | – | T, pH | T | T | pH | – |
Discussion
Over time, the introduced nutrients from sewage discharges, agricultural wastewater, and diffuse runoff could build up the sediment. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the sediments are influenced by several hydrochemical and hydrodynamic conditions in the water column above the sediment. Processes leading to their release to the water column from underlying sediments are numerous. The environmental variables which appear to regulate the release rate from the sediments are temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, pH value, and redox potential (Houet al., 2013).
High dissolved oxygen was recorded during the winter season, which may be due to the high photosynthetic rate of phytoplanktons in clear water. Higher dissolved oxygen in the winter season and lower oxygen in the monsoon were previously recorded in many rivers of Gangetic plain and several other rivers of the Central Himalayas, including the Chandrabhaga and the Tons river (Sharmaet al., 2007, 2009, 2016; Raniet al., 2011). The dissolved oxygen concentration of water is one of the key factors controlling fish habitat quality and a critical measure of stream health. The main energy-producing pathway of fish is the Krebs Cycle, and the electron transport chain. Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor of these pathways, thus can limit the activity of fishes (Kramer, 1987).
The NO2-N in the water body from our study area varied throughout the seasons from 0.005 to 0.263 mg/l and in sediment from 0.0001 to 0.00525 mg/gm. The incomplete oxidation of ammonia can cause the nitrite concentrations to rise up to 50 mg/l or more due to an imbalance (Eddy & Williams, 1987). Freshwater fishes are hyperosmotic to their environment and can gain ions through the diet and accumulate through active uptake mechanisms by the chloride cells of gills in exchange for the bicarbonate ions (Maetz, 1971). A part of the Cl– uptake shifts to NO2– uptake in the presence of the nitrite in the ambient water. The fishes with high branchial Cl– uptake rates (e.g., rainbow trout, perch, pike) were found to be more sensitive to nitrite intoxication than species with low uptake rates (e.g., eel, carp) (Williams & Eddy, 1986).
The nitrate concentration in the surface water is low, generally between 0–18 mg/l. NO3-N concentration from our study varied between 0.1 to 0.271 mg/l in water and between 0.0024 to 0.05 mg/gm in sediment. But it can be high due to agricultural or dump runoff and contamination with human or animal excretory produces. As nitrite concentrations are insignificant relative to nitrate in water, this mixture is referred to as nitrate (EPA, 2017). Nitrate concentrations of up to 1500 mg/l can be found in groundwater in the agricultural area of India. Concentrations of nitrate in rainwater of the industrial regions can be up to 5 mg/l, whereas, in rural areas, concentrations are lower. The guideline values for nitrate is 50 mg/l, and nitrite is 3 mg/l, based on epidemiological evidence for methaemoglobinaemia in infants (WHO, 2011).
The TP concentration from the study ranged between 0.12 to 0.35 mg/l in water and in sediment 0.112 to 0.466 mg/gm. Phosphorus can limit the primary productivity of a water body. In instances where phosphate is a growth-limiting nutrient, eutrophication can take place by inducing the growth of photosynthetic aquatic organisms in nuisance quantities. Algae are, in general, only able to use orthophosphate. After comparing different algae species with varying growth characteristics, it was revealed that the internal ratio of carbon (C): nitrogen (N): phosphorus (P), known as the Redfield ratio (106:16:1), is lower for the species growing rapidly compared with slow-growing species. The presence of excess phosphorus in water enhanced their growth rates (APHA, 2017; Koistinenet al., 2020).
In our study, it has become clear that the temperature and pH of the lentic water bodies were the major direct parameters to understand ecomorphological patterns distribution in SIFs. Such observation has not been reported from any other SIFs in freshwater. The study by Mohamadet al. (2021) also showed how high temperature and low pH can cause severe changes on the carp gill morphology. Mickelson and Downie (2010) investigated the influence of incubation temperature on the morphology of a vertebrate species, Leatherback hatchlings and found that the nest incubation temperature influences hatchling morphology significantly.
In conclusion, it can be assumed that ecomorphological convergence can be an outcome of the physico-chemical properties of an aquatic ecosystem. In freshwater, the SIFs occupy a small habitat, and any change in the physico-chemical properties may affect their distribution.
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